The rapid development and use of new payment products and services, including pre-paid and store-value cards or e-cash, mobile payments, internet based payments and virtual currencies, has changed the dynamics of the 21st century financial market and services.

Despite their endowment of natural wealth, resource-rich developing countries among the poorest, low democratic and most conflict-ridden countries of the world.

Almost every country in the world holds foreign currency reserves or “FX reserves”, which are assets of the central bank held in different reserve currencies, most commonly the US Dollar, used to back its liabilities. Foreign exchange reserves held by the Central Bank are a major national asset and a primary tool of monetary and exchange rate policy.

War remains a matter of great concern to humanity. Recent conflicts have demonstrated that the ravages of war continue to have a devastating impact especially on the civilian population.  
 

International organizations are playing an increasingly important role in the international legal order. They are active in virtually all fields of human activity, they regularly conclude international treaties and continuously interact with other actors of international law. Nowadays, they wield growing normative powers.

The subject of international law brings a lot of concepts to mind, from war and settlement of disputes between States, protection of the environment, responsibilities and obligations, to human rights protection between citizens, refugees of different States and corporations.

For the adequate implementation of and compliance with MEAs at a national level, there is a need to raise awareness on International Environmental Law (IEL) and develop specific capacities for its implementation at the national level.

The International Law of Treaties is a set of international principles and rules regulating the conclusion procedure of treaties, as well as the issues of operation, amendments and modifications, termination, suspension and invalidity of treaties. For those involved in the drafting, negotiation and conclusion of international treaties, a sound knowledge of the Law of Treaties is indispensable.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) are the predominant legal method for addressing transboundary environmental problems. Adopted by States, MEAs are standard-settings instruments for effective global environmental protection.

The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) is a principal training arm of the United Nations, working in every region of the world. We empower individuals, governments and organizations through knowledge and learning to effectively overcome contemporary global challenges.